Chapter Chapter 8: Morphology
What is morphology?
What is a morpheme?
What are free morphemes and bound morphemes?
What is the difference between derivational morpheme and inflectional morpheme?
What is an allomorph? Explain with examples.
Chapter 9: Grammar
Explain the traditional categories like a) agreement, b)number, c)person,
Explain the traditional categories like a)gender, b)grammatical gender, c)natural gender
What are the parts of speech in English? Explain each and give examples.
What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive approaches to grammar?
Do an Immediate Constituent (IC) analysis on the sentence: “My friend bought his father’s car yesterday”
Mark the following sentence using Labeled and Bracketed structure: “My friend bought his father’s car yesterday”
Chapter 10: Syntax
What is syntax?
Explain Generative Grammar as developed by Chomsky.
Explain recursion.
Explain the difference between deep structure and surface structure.
What are the basic phrase structure rules?
Explain the following sentences using labeled tree diagram: “My friend bought his father’s car yesterday” and “Yesterday my friend bought his father’s car”
Chapter 11: Semantics
What is semantics?
What is the difference between conceptual and associative meaning?
Explain synonymy in your own words. Give examples.
Explain antonymy in your own words. Give examples.
Explain hyponymy in your own words. Give examples.
Explain prototypes in your own words. Give examples.
Explain homophony in your own words. Give examples.
Explain homonymy in your own words. Give examples.
Explain homography in your own words. Give examples.
Explain polysemy in your own words. Give examples.
Explain metonymy in your own words. Give examples.
Explain collocation in your own words. Give examples.
Chapter 12: Pragmatics
What is pragmatics?
Explain context and show the difference between physical context and linguistic context.
What is deixis? What are the different kinds of deixis used.
Explain reference and inference in pragmatics.
What is anaphora? Explain it with the help of the notion of antecedent.
Explain the basic principles of conversational interaction.
Explain the idea of presupposition in pragmatics.
Explain the difference between direct and indirect speech acts.
Explain politeness using the notion of face. Refer to face threatening and face saving acts.
Chapter 16: First Language Acquisition
What is L1?
What is caretaker speech? What are its features?
What are the different stages through which a child acquires its first language?
What are pre-language stages? Explain each stage.
What is holophrastic stage in L1 acquisition?
What is two-word stage in L1 acquisition?
What is telegraphic speech in L1 acquisition?
When does overgeneralization occur in L1 acquisition? Why does it happen?
Chapter 17: Second Language Acquisition
What is L2
What is SLA?
What are the barriers for SLA?
What is critical period hypothesis?
Explain affective filter in SLA?
What are the different methods of teaching L2?
Explain Grammar Translation method. What are its drawbacks?
Explain Audio-lingual method. What are its drawbacks?
What is CLT?
What is interlanguage?
Explain Communicative Language Teaching. What are its advantages?
Explain the idea of communicative competence. What are its components?
Friday, May 23, 2008
Monday, November 19, 2007
Chapter 7: Words and Word formation Processes
What are the different methods of word-formation?
The common of word-formation methods are: affixation, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, coinage, acronyms and borrowing.
Explain COINAGE as a method of word-formation.
Coinage is the invention of totally new words. Strictly speaking it refers to a word which has been invented and did not previously exist in any language. immoment (by Shakespeare), and robotics (by Isaac Asimov), are examples. Coinage also refers to the making of words from specific reference to a more general one: e.g. aspirin, nylon, zipper, kleenex, xerox, jeep, and kodak.
Explain BORROWING as a method of word-formation
When words from another language enter a language, it is known as borrowing. English has taken many words other languages. Some examples are: leak, yacht (Dutch); barbecue, cockroach (Spanish); piano, concerto (Italian), cash, rice, teak (Malayalam), and admiral, adobe, alcohol, average, caliber, chemistry, cotton, elixir, lute, magazine, monsoon, nadir, ream, sash, satin, sofa, tariff, zero (Arabic).
Explain COMPOUNDING as a method of word-formation
Compounding is making a new word by stringing together existing words: e.g., earthquake (earth + quake). Some other examples are homework, girlfriend, mailman (noun + noun); sleepwalk, break-dance (verb + verb); icy-cold, red-hot (adjective + adjective); breastfeed, spoon-feed (noun + verb); spoilsport, killjoy, breakfast, cutthroat, dreadnought, know-nothing (Noun + verb); headstrong (noun + adjective); overtake, outdo (preposition + verb).
While some compounds some others retain the meaning of their parts, (e.g. doghouse) some others have new meanings (e.g. white-collar).
Explain BLENDING as a method of word-formation.
Blending is the process of fusing words together. In the process, both words lose parts. Some examples are:
Clipping is the shortening of a word: e.g: gym (gymnasium), fax (facsimile), lab (laboratory). Thre are different types of clipping: front-clipping, middle-clipping, end-clipping, ends-clipping and complex clipping.
Front-clipping:
End-clipping:
The common of word-formation methods are: affixation, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, coinage, acronyms and borrowing.
Explain COINAGE as a method of word-formation.
Coinage is the invention of totally new words. Strictly speaking it refers to a word which has been invented and did not previously exist in any language. immoment (by Shakespeare), and robotics (by Isaac Asimov), are examples. Coinage also refers to the making of words from specific reference to a more general one: e.g. aspirin, nylon, zipper, kleenex, xerox, jeep, and kodak.
Explain BORROWING as a method of word-formation
When words from another language enter a language, it is known as borrowing. English has taken many words other languages. Some examples are: leak, yacht (Dutch); barbecue, cockroach (Spanish); piano, concerto (Italian), cash, rice, teak (Malayalam), and admiral, adobe, alcohol, average, caliber, chemistry, cotton, elixir, lute, magazine, monsoon, nadir, ream, sash, satin, sofa, tariff, zero (Arabic).
Explain COMPOUNDING as a method of word-formation
Compounding is making a new word by stringing together existing words: e.g., earthquake (earth + quake). Some other examples are homework, girlfriend, mailman (noun + noun); sleepwalk, break-dance (verb + verb); icy-cold, red-hot (adjective + adjective); breastfeed, spoon-feed (noun + verb); spoilsport, killjoy, breakfast, cutthroat, dreadnought, know-nothing (Noun + verb); headstrong (noun + adjective); overtake, outdo (preposition + verb).
While some compounds some others retain the meaning of their parts, (e.g. doghouse) some others have new meanings (e.g. white-collar).
Explain BLENDING as a method of word-formation.
Blending is the process of fusing words together. In the process, both words lose parts. Some examples are:
smog (smoke + fog),Explain CLIPPING as a method of word-formation.
motel (motor + hotel),
brunch (breakfast + lunch).
motorcade (motor + cavalcade),
transistor (transfer + resistor),
electrocution, (electricity + execution)
travelogue (travel + monologue).
bash, (bang + smash),
brunch (breakfast + lunch.),
chortle, (chuckle + snort),
chunnel, (channel + tunnel),
dumbfound, (dumb + confound),
edutainment, (education + entertainment),
electrocution, (electricity + execution),
emoticon, (emotion + icon),
guesstimate, (guess + estimate),
infomercial, (information + commercial),
motel, (motor + hotel),
motorcade, (motor + cavalcade),
simulcast, (simultaneous broadcast),
splatter, (probably splash + spatter),
squiggle, (squirm + wiggle),
stagflation, (stagnation + inflation),
televangelist, (television + evangelist),
transistor, (transfer + resistor),
travelogue, (travel monologue),
twiddle, (twist + fiddle).
Clipping is the shortening of a word: e.g: gym (gymnasium), fax (facsimile), lab (laboratory). Thre are different types of clipping: front-clipping, middle-clipping, end-clipping, ends-clipping and complex clipping.
Front-clipping:
phone (telephone)
varsity (university)
chute (parachute)
bus (omnibus)
fax (facsimile)
plane (airplane);
End-clipping:
ad (advertisement)Middle-clipping:
cable (cablegram)
exam (examination)
gas (gasoline)
memo (memorandum)
gym ( gymnasium)
pub (public house)
fan (fanatic);
maths (mathematics)
specs (spectacles)
pants (pantaloons)
Ends-clipping:
flu (influenza)
fridge (refrigerator);
Complex clipping:
cablegram (cable telegram)
op art (optical art)
showbiz (show business)
sci-fi (science fiction)
sitcom (situation comedy)
Explain BACKFORMATION as a method of word-formation.
Backformation is the process of making a new word by removing a real (e.g., vacuum clean from vacuum cleaner,), or imagined affix (pea from pease) from a word. Some other examples for backformation are:
acculturate (acculturation)
air-condition (air conditioning)
automate (automation)
babysit (babysitter)
brainwash (brainwashing)
bulldoze (bulldozer)
custom-make (custom-made)
destruct (destruction)
diagnose (diagnosis)
diplomat (diplomatic)
donate (donation)
edit (editor)
emote (emotion)
greed (greedy [the noun was originally greediness])
handwrite (handwriting)
houseclean (housecleaning)
housekeep (housekeeper)
jell (jelly)
kempt (unkempt)
kidnap (kidnapper)
legislate (legislator)
liaise (liaison)
manipulate (manipulation)
opine (opinion)
preempt (preemption)
proofread (proof-reader)
self-destruct (self-destruction)
sightsee (sightseeing)
surreal (surrealism)
televise (television)
typewrite (typewriter)
Some back-formed words like burger (from Hamburger) are used as compound: beefburger, cheeseburger etc.
Explain HYPOCORISM as a method of word formation.
Hypocorism is using a noun differently as endearment term. It is a kind of backformation in which a final –y or –ie is added to a back-clipped word:
Aussie (Australian)
telly (television)
sweetie (sweet heart)
movie ('moving picture')
hanky (handkerchief)
granny (grandmother)
Explain INITIALISM and ACRONYM as methods of word-formation
Initialism is abbreviations formed from initials e.g. BBC, UNHCR. Acronym refers both initialisms which can be pronounced as words: e.g. Nato (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), Aids (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), Ram (random access memory), and also to words such as radar (radio distancing and ranging), laser (light amplification by simulated emission of radiation), jeep (GP from General Purpose Vehicle) etc., which are more complex abbreviations.
Chapter 6: Sound Patterns of Language
What is phonology?
Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.
What is a phoneme?
Phoneme is the smallest sound unit that can distinguish between two words. For example, both /p/ and /b/ are phonemes because their use can distinguish between the words pin and bin.
How do we find out if a sound is a phoneme?
Phoneme functions as the minimal contrastive unit. If the use of a sound unit changes the meaning of the word, that sound is a phoneme. For example, in English ‘pin’ and ‘bin’ are two words because in English the phoneme /p/ instead of the phoneme /b/, the meaning of the word can be changed.
Why are square brackets and slashes used in Phonetics?
Square brackets (e.g. [p] ) are used to indicate a physically produced segment of sound. Slashes (e.g. /p/) are used to indicate a phoneme. The former is a physical sound, and the latter is its abstract idea.
What is an allophone?
An allophone is one of several similar phones that belong to the same phoneme. For example, the phoneme /p/ in the words ‘pin’ and ‘spin’, has different realizations: [ph] in pin and [p] in spin. Each of these different realizations is called an allophone.
What is a minimal pair?
When two words are identical in form except for one phoneme occurring in identical position, they are called minimal pair: e.g: as pin-bin, tin-din, fan-van, fit-feet, cut-cot.
What is a minimal set?
Minimal set is a group of words each of which can be differentiated from the rest only by the change of a single phoneme. An example for a minimal set is the list: ban, pan, fan, van, man, ran, can.
What is Phonotactics?
Phonotactics explain the rules for the combination of phonemes. It defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences using phonotactical constraints.
What is a syllable?
A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a vowel, and the consonants that cluster around it. A syllable is typically made up of a nucleus (a vowel) with optional initial and final consonants.
How many syllables can be there in a word?
A word may have any number of syllables: from monosyllabic (one syllable) to polysyllabic (two or more). The word cat is monosyllabic, mon.key is disyllabic, in.di.gent is trisyllabic, and in.te.lli.gence polysyllabic.
What is the structure of a syllable?
A syllable has an optional onset + the obligatory rime. Rime consist of the obligatory nucleus (vowel) and optional coda. For example, in ‘fool’, the onset is /f/, and the rime is (the nucleus /u:/ and coda /l/).
What is a consonant cluster?
Consonant cluster is the group of consonant phonemes that appear together in a syllable. C is used as a symbol for a consonant and V for a vowel. Thus, the word ‘see' /si:/ has a CV syllabic structure as the consonant comes before a vowel. Some other examples are CCV (free /fri:/), VC (eat /i:t/), CVC (fool /fu:l/) etc.
What is co-articulation effect?
Co-articulation refers to the sound changes that happen to phonemes because of pronouncing sounds together. Assimilation and elision are the common co-articulation effects.
What is assimilation?
Assimilation is co-articulation effect in which some aspect of one phoneme is copied on to its adjacent phoneme. For example, when one pronounces man, the vowel sound becomes a nasalised sound.
What is elision?
Elision is the omission of a sound segment in speech. A sound which would be present in a word in when pronounced in isolation is left out for the sake of ease in pronunciation. For example while speaking fast, the phoneme /d/ is omitted from ‘friendship’ and /t/ is omitted from ‘aspects’.
Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.
What is a phoneme?
Phoneme is the smallest sound unit that can distinguish between two words. For example, both /p/ and /b/ are phonemes because their use can distinguish between the words pin and bin.
How do we find out if a sound is a phoneme?
Phoneme functions as the minimal contrastive unit. If the use of a sound unit changes the meaning of the word, that sound is a phoneme. For example, in English ‘pin’ and ‘bin’ are two words because in English the phoneme /p/ instead of the phoneme /b/, the meaning of the word can be changed.
Why are square brackets and slashes used in Phonetics?
Square brackets (e.g. [p] ) are used to indicate a physically produced segment of sound. Slashes (e.g. /p/) are used to indicate a phoneme. The former is a physical sound, and the latter is its abstract idea.
What is an allophone?
An allophone is one of several similar phones that belong to the same phoneme. For example, the phoneme /p/ in the words ‘pin’ and ‘spin’, has different realizations: [ph] in pin and [p] in spin. Each of these different realizations is called an allophone.
What is a minimal pair?
When two words are identical in form except for one phoneme occurring in identical position, they are called minimal pair: e.g: as pin-bin, tin-din, fan-van, fit-feet, cut-cot.
What is a minimal set?
Minimal set is a group of words each of which can be differentiated from the rest only by the change of a single phoneme. An example for a minimal set is the list: ban, pan, fan, van, man, ran, can.
What is Phonotactics?
Phonotactics explain the rules for the combination of phonemes. It defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences using phonotactical constraints.
What is a syllable?
A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a vowel, and the consonants that cluster around it. A syllable is typically made up of a nucleus (a vowel) with optional initial and final consonants.
How many syllables can be there in a word?
A word may have any number of syllables: from monosyllabic (one syllable) to polysyllabic (two or more). The word cat is monosyllabic, mon.key is disyllabic, in.di.gent is trisyllabic, and in.te.lli.gence polysyllabic.
What is the structure of a syllable?
A syllable has an optional onset + the obligatory rime. Rime consist of the obligatory nucleus (vowel) and optional coda. For example, in ‘fool’, the onset is /f/, and the rime is (the nucleus /u:/ and coda /l/).
What is a consonant cluster?
Consonant cluster is the group of consonant phonemes that appear together in a syllable. C is used as a symbol for a consonant and V for a vowel. Thus, the word ‘see' /si:/ has a CV syllabic structure as the consonant comes before a vowel. Some other examples are CCV (free /fri:/), VC (eat /i:t/), CVC (fool /fu:l/) etc.
What is co-articulation effect?
Co-articulation refers to the sound changes that happen to phonemes because of pronouncing sounds together. Assimilation and elision are the common co-articulation effects.
What is assimilation?
Assimilation is co-articulation effect in which some aspect of one phoneme is copied on to its adjacent phoneme. For example, when one pronounces man, the vowel sound becomes a nasalised sound.
What is elision?
Elision is the omission of a sound segment in speech. A sound which would be present in a word in when pronounced in isolation is left out for the sake of ease in pronunciation. For example while speaking fast, the phoneme /d/ is omitted from ‘friendship’ and /t/ is omitted from ‘aspects’.
Sunday, October 28, 2007
Chapter 5: The Sounds of Language
What is phonetics?
Phonetics (from the Greek word phone meaning 'sound, voice') is the study of human speech sounds.
What are the branches of phonetics?
Phonetics has three main branches. Articulatory phonetics concerned with the positions and movements of the lips, tongue, vocal tract and folds and other speech organs in producing speech; acoustic phonetics, concerned with the properties of the sound waves and how they are received by the inner ear; and auditory phonetics, concerned with speech perception, principally how the brain forms perceptual representations of the input it receives.
What is forensic phonetics?
Forensic phonetics is a branch of phonetics that deals with speaker identification and analysis of recorded speech.
What is the function of vocal cords?
Vocal cords are two lip-like muscular structures found within the larynx. When the air is pushed out, vocal cords can adapt different positions—from wide open to tightly closed. When vocal cords are spread apart, air passes between them effortlessly. When they are drawn together, they vibrate as air is pushed out through them, making the sound voiced.
This close-up view of the trans-nasal fibreoptic stroboscopy exam by Dr. Christopher Chang shows the conchae in the nasal cavity, he cricoid cartilage and arytenoid cartilage, connected to these are the cricoarytenoid muscle and the thyroarytenoid muscle, the epiglottis (the thing that looks a bit like a tongue) , vocal folds (the bits that actually vibrate), the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) and a bit of the trachae. Video of an exam performed on a patient to evaluate the vocal cords using stroboscopy. (click here). The vocal cords actually vibrate hundreds of times faster than you can see here. The strobe lights just create the illusion of the slow movement!
What is a voiced sound?
If vocal cords vibrate during the production of a sound, the sound will have a ‘buzz’ effect to it. Such sounds are called voiced sounds. Sounds like /z/, /v/ etc. are voiced sounds.
What is a voiceless sound?
If the vocal cords do not vibrate during the production of a sound, the sound is called voiceless sounds. Sounds like /s/, /f/ are voiceless sounds.
What is IPA?
IPA stands for International Phonetic Association. It has formulated the guidelines about describing and transcribing speech sounds in different languages. It recognizes more than 100 distinctive phonemes. The symbols it uses for transcription are called international Phonetic Alphabet.
How do we describe a sound?
Consonant sounds are described by means of 1) the place of articulation, 2) the manner of articulation, and 3) the position of the vocal cords. Vowel sounds are described by 1) the height of the tongue, 2) the part of the tongue that is raised, 3) the length of the vowel, and 4) the shape of the lips.
What are the places of articulation?
The place of articulation refers to the point of contact between the active and passive vocal organs involved in the production of a sound. Many positions can be adopted. In English there are nine different places of articulation: Bilabial, Labiodentals, Dental, Alveolar, post-alveolar, Palato-alveolar, Palatal, Velar, and Glottal
Explain a bilabial sound.
Bilabial sounds are produced when both lips touches each other for articulation. The bilabial sounds in English are /p/, /b/, and /m/.
Explain labio-dental sounds
Labio-dental sounds are produced when lower lip touches the upper teeth for articulation. The labio-dental sounds in English are /f/ and /v/.
Explain dental sounds
Dental sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue comes in between the teeth for articulation. The dental sounds in English are // and /δ/.
Explain alveolar sounds
Dental sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge for articulation. The alveolar sounds in English are /t/ and /d/.
Explain post alveolar sounds
Post-alveolar sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue touches the region immediately behind the alveolar ridge for articulation.
Explain palate-alveolar sounds
The palate-alveolar sounds are produced when the front of the tongue touches both alveolar ridge and palate for articulation.
Explain palatal sounds
Palatal sounds are produced when the front of the tongue touches the hard palate for articulation. The only palatal sound in English is /j/ .
Explain velar sounds
Velar sounds are produced when the back of the tongue touches the soft palate (vellum) for articulation. E.g. /k/, /g/
Explain glottal sounds
Glottal sounds are produced at the vocal cords. (Glottis is the gap between the vocal cords.) The only glottal sound in English is /h/.
What is meant by the manner of articulation?
Manner of articulation refers to the manner in which a sound is produced. It refers to how the airstream is modulated, the stricture used and the cavity used for the air to escape.
Explain plosive sounds
Plosive sounds are produced when air is stopped at a point in the oral passage, and is released suddenly with an explosive sound. Examples in English are: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, and /g/. These are also called stops.
Explain fricative sounds
Fricative sounds are made when air released slowly through a narrow passage with an audible friction. E.g.: /f/, /v/, / /δ/, /s/, /z/, /∫/
Explain affricate sounds
Affricate sounds are made when air is stopped at a point in the oral passage, and the air pressure is slowly released through a narrow gap. .
Explain nasal sounds
Nasal sounds are made when air is released through the nose during articulation.
Explain approximant sounds
Approximants are consonant sounds which share some qualities of vowel sounds. They are produced without much stricture in the oral passage. Examples of approximants in English are: /j/, /r/, /l/, /w/, and /h/.
What is a flap?
Flap is produced when the tip of the tongue is thrown against the alveolar ridge for an instant. When some people pronounce ‘writer’ as ‘rider’, they make a flap.
What is a vowel?
A vowel is a sound in the production of which the vocal tract is open and there is no build-up of air pressure above the glottis. The word ‘vowel’ comes from the Latin word vocalis, (speaking), because speech are not possible without vowels. Monophthongs are vowel sound whose sound quality do not change over the duration. They are also called "pure" or "stable" vowels.
What is a diphthongs and triphthongs?
A vowel sound that glides from one quality to another is called a diphthong (boy), and a vowel sound that glides between three qualities is a triphthong (flower).
Wednesday, October 24, 2007
Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE?
1. Spoken language originated before written language. ....
2. Children living without access to human speech in early years grow up with no language. ......
3. Onomatopoeic words support the oral gesture hypothesis .......
4. Yo-Heave-Ho hypothesis gives importance to the social origin of language. ..............
5. Glossogenetics is based mostly on the evolution theory. .........
6. Language use is mostly confined to the left side of the human brain. ..........
7. When a symbol refers to a word, we may call it logogram. ........
8. Cuneiform writing was basically logographic writing. ...........
9. Logograms are used in Chinese language. ...............
10. Rebus writing started by using the sound of logograms or ideograms. ......
11. It was the Phoenicians who developed Syllabic writing. ........
12. It was the ancient Greeks who first added vowel letters to the alphabet. .........
13. Human language has no properties of its own when compare to animal language.........
14. Human language is limited by time and space. ........
15. In human languages, there is a natural connection between the sign and its meaning.........
16. Most animal signs have a connection between the message and its signal. ........
17. Human beings can create a sentence that has never been uttered before. .........
18. Human beings cannot create a sentence that they have never heard before. .........
19. Human languages are culturally transmitted........
20. Human sounds and meanings are distinct and independent. .........
2. Children living without access to human speech in early years grow up with no language. ......
3. Onomatopoeic words support the oral gesture hypothesis .......
4. Yo-Heave-Ho hypothesis gives importance to the social origin of language. ..............
5. Glossogenetics is based mostly on the evolution theory. .........
6. Language use is mostly confined to the left side of the human brain. ..........
7. When a symbol refers to a word, we may call it logogram. ........
8. Cuneiform writing was basically logographic writing. ...........
9. Logograms are used in Chinese language. ...............
10. Rebus writing started by using the sound of logograms or ideograms. ......
11. It was the Phoenicians who developed Syllabic writing. ........
12. It was the ancient Greeks who first added vowel letters to the alphabet. .........
13. Human language has no properties of its own when compare to animal language.........
14. Human language is limited by time and space. ........
15. In human languages, there is a natural connection between the sign and its meaning.........
16. Most animal signs have a connection between the message and its signal. ........
17. Human beings can create a sentence that has never been uttered before. .........
18. Human beings cannot create a sentence that they have never heard before. .........
19. Human languages are culturally transmitted........
20. Human sounds and meanings are distinct and independent. .........
Chapter 3: Properties of Language
Define the following features of language:
Vocal-auditory channel: Human language is produced orally and is received through the ear.
Reciprocity: Human beings communicate by sending and receiving signals.
Specialization: Linguistic signals have only one purpose—of communication.
Non-directionality: Linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within the range of the signals.
How does human language differ from animal languages?
Human languages differ from animal languages in many ways. Some of the major features of human languages are 1) displacement, 2) arbitrariness, 3) productivity, 4) cultural transmission, 5) discreteness, and 6) duality. Animal languages do not possess these features.
What is meant by displacement feature of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the displacement feature of human language. It means that human language can overcome the limitations of time and space. Animal communication is designed for here and now. But, human language can relate to events removed in time and space.
What is meant by arbitrariness of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the arbitrariness of human language. It means that human linguistic signs do not have any natural connection between its form and meaning. The only exceptions are the onomatopoeic sounds. In the animal communication, the signs they use are synonymous with meaning.
What is meant by productivity of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the productivity of human language. This refers to the human ability to combine limited linguistic signs to produce new sentences and expressions. Animals are incapable of this as animal signals have fixed reference.
What is meant by cultural transmission of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the cultural transmission of human language. While animals get their language genetically, human beings acquire language. Human languages are passed down by the society in which one lives and grows up.
What is meant by discreteness of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the discreteness of human language. This refers to the uniqueness of the sounds used in human languages. Every language use a set of different sounds. Each of these sounds is different from the rest and are combined to form new meanings. A sound can be repeated, or combined with another to form a new meaning. But, animal languages do not have this feature of discreteness.
What is meant by duality of human language?
One major difference between animal language and human language is the duality of human language. This is not found in animal languages. Human language can be both spoken and written. Even the languages that do not have alphabet can be written down using some symbols. Animal languages are only spoken.
Vocal-auditory channel: Human language is produced orally and is received through the ear.
Reciprocity: Human beings communicate by sending and receiving signals.
Specialization: Linguistic signals have only one purpose—of communication.
Non-directionality: Linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within the range of the signals.
How does human language differ from animal languages?
Human languages differ from animal languages in many ways. Some of the major features of human languages are 1) displacement, 2) arbitrariness, 3) productivity, 4) cultural transmission, 5) discreteness, and 6) duality. Animal languages do not possess these features.
What is meant by displacement feature of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the displacement feature of human language. It means that human language can overcome the limitations of time and space. Animal communication is designed for here and now. But, human language can relate to events removed in time and space.
What is meant by arbitrariness of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the arbitrariness of human language. It means that human linguistic signs do not have any natural connection between its form and meaning. The only exceptions are the onomatopoeic sounds. In the animal communication, the signs they use are synonymous with meaning.
What is meant by productivity of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the productivity of human language. This refers to the human ability to combine limited linguistic signs to produce new sentences and expressions. Animals are incapable of this as animal signals have fixed reference.
What is meant by cultural transmission of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the cultural transmission of human language. While animals get their language genetically, human beings acquire language. Human languages are passed down by the society in which one lives and grows up.
What is meant by discreteness of human language?
A major difference between animal language and human language is the discreteness of human language. This refers to the uniqueness of the sounds used in human languages. Every language use a set of different sounds. Each of these sounds is different from the rest and are combined to form new meanings. A sound can be repeated, or combined with another to form a new meaning. But, animal languages do not have this feature of discreteness.
What is meant by duality of human language?
One major difference between animal language and human language is the duality of human language. This is not found in animal languages. Human language can be both spoken and written. Even the languages that do not have alphabet can be written down using some symbols. Animal languages are only spoken.
Chapter 2: The Development of Writing
What is writing?
Writing is the recording of speech using written signs.
Name the different phases in the development of writing.
The major phases in the development of writing are: pictographic writing, ideographic writing, logographic writing, rebus writing, syllabic writing and alphabetic writing.
What is pictographic writing?
Pictographic writing using picture to represent an object. For example, the use of to mean ‘sun’. In pictographic writing, the sign and its meaning have one of one-to one correspondence.
What is ideographic writing?
Ideographic writing is the use of picture-like symbols to represent the idea of an object. For example, one may draw a circle (O) to mean ‘the sun’, ‘day’, ‘light’, etc. An ideographic sign can represent many related ideas.
What is logographic writing?
Logographic writing is the use of arbitrary signs to represent the idea of an object. For example, Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3...) are arbitrary symbols which represent a whole idea. Other common logograms include the signs & (ampersand), @, (at), % (percent), currency signs ($, ¢, €, £, ¥ etc.) Chinese and Japanese writing are logographic.
What is rebus writing? Explain its importance.
Rebus writing uses symbols such as pictograms as sounds symbols to represent new words. (In Latin language, rebus meant "by things"). A. The association of a picture with a sound was the earliest attempt to write sounds. This method is used in many ancient writings to represent abstract ideas.
What is syllabic writing?
In Syllabic writings, signs represented syllables rather than the whole word. It needed a syllabary—a set of written symbols to represent syllables.
What is alphabetical writing?
Alphabetical writing is the use of signs to represent both the consonant and vowel sounds. Alphabetic writing was discovered by the Phoenicians. Greeks improved it by adding separate symbols for vowels.
Why are there problems in sound-letter correspondence in English?
English is an alphabetical language. But, it does not have absolute sound-letter correspondence because of many reasons. 1) English spelling was fixed by non-English printers in the 16th century. 2) Pronunciation of English words have undergone a gradual change. 3) Many foreign words in English often retain their original spelling.
What is the direction of writing?
Different scripts are written in different directions. The early alphabet could be written in any direction: left-to-right (English, Greek, Latin) right-to-left (Arabic, Aramaic, Hebrew), up (Philipinian languages like Alibata, Baybayin or down(Chinese), or boustrophedon—writing of alternate lines were in opposite directions, started horizontally in one direction and at the end of the line reversing direction(Egyptian hieroglyph). The Mongolian alphabet is the only script written top-to-bottom and also left-to-right.
Your Assignment (History of Writing)
Find out the Arabic words used in English. Make a list of 50 words.
Writing is the recording of speech using written signs.
Name the different phases in the development of writing.
The major phases in the development of writing are: pictographic writing, ideographic writing, logographic writing, rebus writing, syllabic writing and alphabetic writing.
What is pictographic writing?
Pictographic writing using picture to represent an object. For example, the use of to mean ‘sun’. In pictographic writing, the sign and its meaning have one of one-to one correspondence.
What is ideographic writing?
Ideographic writing is the use of picture-like symbols to represent the idea of an object. For example, one may draw a circle (O) to mean ‘the sun’, ‘day’, ‘light’, etc. An ideographic sign can represent many related ideas.
What is logographic writing?
Logographic writing is the use of arbitrary signs to represent the idea of an object. For example, Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3...) are arbitrary symbols which represent a whole idea. Other common logograms include the signs & (ampersand), @, (at), % (percent), currency signs ($, ¢, €, £, ¥ etc.) Chinese and Japanese writing are logographic.
What is rebus writing? Explain its importance.
Rebus writing uses symbols such as pictograms as sounds symbols to represent new words. (In Latin language, rebus meant "by things"). A. The association of a picture with a sound was the earliest attempt to write sounds. This method is used in many ancient writings to represent abstract ideas.
What is syllabic writing?
In Syllabic writings, signs represented syllables rather than the whole word. It needed a syllabary—a set of written symbols to represent syllables.
What is alphabetical writing?
Alphabetical writing is the use of signs to represent both the consonant and vowel sounds. Alphabetic writing was discovered by the Phoenicians. Greeks improved it by adding separate symbols for vowels.
Why are there problems in sound-letter correspondence in English?
English is an alphabetical language. But, it does not have absolute sound-letter correspondence because of many reasons. 1) English spelling was fixed by non-English printers in the 16th century. 2) Pronunciation of English words have undergone a gradual change. 3) Many foreign words in English often retain their original spelling.
What is the direction of writing?
Different scripts are written in different directions. The early alphabet could be written in any direction: left-to-right (English, Greek, Latin) right-to-left (Arabic, Aramaic, Hebrew), up (Philipinian languages like Alibata, Baybayin or down(Chinese), or boustrophedon—writing of alternate lines were in opposite directions, started horizontally in one direction and at the end of the line reversing direction(Egyptian hieroglyph). The Mongolian alphabet is the only script written top-to-bottom and also left-to-right.
Your Assignment (History of Writing)
Find out the Arabic words used in English. Make a list of 50 words.
Thursday, September 13, 2007
Week 2. Chapter 1: The Origin of Language
What is language?
Language is an arbitrary system of a set of signs used for communication. It is arbitrary because there is no natural connection between the sign and what it refers to. The signs used in the language are only means which help in referring to something other than them.
How did language originate?
We do not have enough data to prove the origin of language. Because of this, we can only make some hypotheses about the origin of language.
What are the different hypotheses about the origin of language?
The different hypotheses about the origin of language can be grouped as divine source hypotheses, human source hypotheses and evolutionary hypotheses.
Explain the Divine Source Hypothesis about the origin of language.
It is a view held by the religions. It says that human beings did not invent language, but some divine source gifted it to mankind.
Explain the Human source Hypothesis about the origin of language
The human Source hypothesis about the origin of language claims that man produced language with his own effort. There are many popular versions of this hypothesis. They are:
a) "Bow-wow" hypothesis
b) “Pooh pooh” hypothesis
c) The "Yo-heave-ho" hypothesis and
d) The 'Ta-ta' hypothesis
Explain the Bow-wow Hypothesis about the origin of language
It claims that the first human words were those sounds whose form communicated its meaning. When one imitates the sound of dog and says ‘bow-wow’, the picture of a dog comes to mind. The few surviving onomatopoeic words are examples. However, onomatopoeia is a very limited part of the vocabulary of any language. Even if one agrees that onomatopoeia provided the first words, where did the rest come from?
Some English onomatopoeic words are bang (door), click (computer mouse), moo (cow), oink (pig), quack (duck), meow (cat) honk (horn), vroom (engine) pew pew (laser) quack (duck), hiss (snake) roar (lion), splash (water), beep (electronic devices), ping pong (table tennis) etc.
Explain the “Pooh pooh” Hypothesis about the origin of language.
The “Pooh pooh” Hypothesis about the origin of language claims that the first words came from involuntary cries. Cries expressing dislike (pooh pooh!), hunger, pain (ouch!), or pleasure, gradually led to the expression of more developed ideas and emotions. However, emotional exclamations are a very small part of any language. Moreover, most human responses to stimuli like sneeze, cry, hiccough etc. are ingressive sounds while human languages use egressive sounds.
Explain the "Yo-heave-ho" Hypothesis about the origin of language.
The Yo-heave-ho" Hypothesis about the origin of language claims that language developed out of necessity when human beings began working together in groups. When they engaged in hard labour (lifting heavy animals, pulling fallen trees, pushing huge rocks etc.), they needed grunts, chants etc. to synchronize their activity. This theory stresses the social origin of language.
Explain the ‘Ta-ta’ Hypothesis about the origin of language.
The ‘Ta-ta’ Hypothesis argues that that language came from oral pantomime of gestures. People used organs of speech to imitate body gestures with a sort of mouth pantomime. However, although primates use same gesture to communicate, human gestures differ from culture to culture.
Explain Glossogenetics:
Glossogenetics is a hypothesis about the evolution of language. It argues that that human language developed as a result of this evolutionary change because of some physical language acquisition device they got during evolution. It points out that a) at some stage in the evolution humans acquired a sophisticated brain which helped them acquire language, and b) the ability to move upright transformed human larynx to an organ capable of producing of vowel and consonant sounds.
Language is an arbitrary system of a set of signs used for communication. It is arbitrary because there is no natural connection between the sign and what it refers to. The signs used in the language are only means which help in referring to something other than them.
How did language originate?
We do not have enough data to prove the origin of language. Because of this, we can only make some hypotheses about the origin of language.
What are the different hypotheses about the origin of language?
The different hypotheses about the origin of language can be grouped as divine source hypotheses, human source hypotheses and evolutionary hypotheses.
Explain the Divine Source Hypothesis about the origin of language.
It is a view held by the religions. It says that human beings did not invent language, but some divine source gifted it to mankind.
Explain the Human source Hypothesis about the origin of language
The human Source hypothesis about the origin of language claims that man produced language with his own effort. There are many popular versions of this hypothesis. They are:
a) "Bow-wow" hypothesis
b) “Pooh pooh” hypothesis
c) The "Yo-heave-ho" hypothesis and
d) The 'Ta-ta' hypothesis
Explain the Bow-wow Hypothesis about the origin of language
It claims that the first human words were those sounds whose form communicated its meaning. When one imitates the sound of dog and says ‘bow-wow’, the picture of a dog comes to mind. The few surviving onomatopoeic words are examples. However, onomatopoeia is a very limited part of the vocabulary of any language. Even if one agrees that onomatopoeia provided the first words, where did the rest come from?
Some English onomatopoeic words are bang (door), click (computer mouse), moo (cow), oink (pig), quack (duck), meow (cat) honk (horn), vroom (engine) pew pew (laser) quack (duck), hiss (snake) roar (lion), splash (water), beep (electronic devices), ping pong (table tennis) etc.
Explain the “Pooh pooh” Hypothesis about the origin of language.
The “Pooh pooh” Hypothesis about the origin of language claims that the first words came from involuntary cries. Cries expressing dislike (pooh pooh!), hunger, pain (ouch!), or pleasure, gradually led to the expression of more developed ideas and emotions. However, emotional exclamations are a very small part of any language. Moreover, most human responses to stimuli like sneeze, cry, hiccough etc. are ingressive sounds while human languages use egressive sounds.
Explain the "Yo-heave-ho" Hypothesis about the origin of language.
The Yo-heave-ho" Hypothesis about the origin of language claims that language developed out of necessity when human beings began working together in groups. When they engaged in hard labour (lifting heavy animals, pulling fallen trees, pushing huge rocks etc.), they needed grunts, chants etc. to synchronize their activity. This theory stresses the social origin of language.
Explain the ‘Ta-ta’ Hypothesis about the origin of language.
The ‘Ta-ta’ Hypothesis argues that that language came from oral pantomime of gestures. People used organs of speech to imitate body gestures with a sort of mouth pantomime. However, although primates use same gesture to communicate, human gestures differ from culture to culture.
Explain Glossogenetics:
Glossogenetics is a hypothesis about the evolution of language. It argues that that human language developed as a result of this evolutionary change because of some physical language acquisition device they got during evolution. It points out that a) at some stage in the evolution humans acquired a sophisticated brain which helped them acquire language, and b) the ability to move upright transformed human larynx to an organ capable of producing of vowel and consonant sounds.
Some linguistic termminology
What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
Who is a linguist?
Linguist is someone who engages in the scientific study of language.
What are the branches of linguistics?
The main braches of linguistics are Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics and discourse analysis.
What is Phonetics?
Phonetics is the study of the physical aspects of sounds of human language.
What is Phonology?
Phonology is the study of sounds and sound patterns of a language.
What is Morphology?
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words.
What is Syntax?
Syntax is the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences.
What is Semantics?
Semantics is the study of the lexical meaning of word, phrases or sentences.
What is Pragmatics?
Pragmatics is the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts.
What is Discourse analysis?
Discourse analysis is the analysis of language use in texts.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
Who is a linguist?
Linguist is someone who engages in the scientific study of language.
What are the branches of linguistics?
The main braches of linguistics are Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics and discourse analysis.
What is Phonetics?
Phonetics is the study of the physical aspects of sounds of human language.
What is Phonology?
Phonology is the study of sounds and sound patterns of a language.
What is Morphology?
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words.
What is Syntax?
Syntax is the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences.
What is Semantics?
Semantics is the study of the lexical meaning of word, phrases or sentences.
What is Pragmatics?
Pragmatics is the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts.
What is Discourse analysis?
Discourse analysis is the analysis of language use in texts.
Textbooks
Required Textbook:
Yule, George. (1996) The Study of Language. Cambridge: CUP.
You find these books from your college library:
Robins, RH. (1980). General Linguistics. London: Longman;
Atkinson, M, Kilby, D & Roca, I. (1988). Foundations of General Linguistics. London;
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1998). An Introduction to Language. New York;
Poole, C. (1999). An Introduction to Linguistics. London;
Widdowson, HG (1996). Linguistics. London: OUP.
Yule, George. (1996) The Study of Language. Cambridge: CUP.
You find these books from your college library:
Robins, RH. (1980). General Linguistics. London: Longman;
Atkinson, M, Kilby, D & Roca, I. (1988). Foundations of General Linguistics. London;
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1998). An Introduction to Language. New York;
Poole, C. (1999). An Introduction to Linguistics. London;
Widdowson, HG (1996). Linguistics. London: OUP.
Week 1: Introduction to the course
Dear Students,
Welcome to the course ENG 252 (Introduction to Linguistics). This week, you will:
a. Acquaint yourself with the basic issues of the course, and
b. Acquaint yourself with the terminology of the course.
Welcome to the course ENG 252 (Introduction to Linguistics). This week, you will:
a. Acquaint yourself with the basic issues of the course, and
b. Acquaint yourself with the terminology of the course.
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